MODELS, SOCIAL MODELING, AND MODELS OF
INTERNATIONAL SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION
Richard J. Estes
University of Pennsylvania
In social science, "models" refer to representations of social phenomena
that exist in the real world (e.g., social change, population growth,
patterns of interpersonal relationships). They can be expressed either as
mental abstractions of perceptions and experience or, more formally,
through pictures or other symbols, including mathematics. The purpose of
a model is to bring together many isolated, but always incomplete,
perceptions into a more complete picture, i.e., an attempt to comprehend
the whole system rather than just its single parts. In doing so, models
can serve as a basis for making decisions about future actions.
The "best" models are those that accurately represent the processes
or events that the model seeks to capture; hence, accurate models permit
more "right" decisions to be made regarding future actions. The "worst"
models bear little or no resemblance
to external reality; hence, fewer
"right" choices can be made concerning future courses of action.
MODELING IN THE HUMAN SERVICES
Social modeling can make an important contribution to the human services.
To manage complex systems of social care effectively, for example, policy
makers, program managers, and practitioners must: (1) bring together a
variety of models; (2) translate the differences associated with each
model into a common language; and (3) determine simultaneously all of the
important implications of each model for the decisions that must be made.
The development of more formal models of human social behavior can
accelerate these vital synthesizing functions. They can also contribute to
making more "right" decisions between competing policy alternatives and
future
service outcomes.
Today, the dominant modeling process in the human services tends to
be more intuitive and less formal, i.e., to occur on the basis of
perceptions and limited experience. Indeed, many difficult policy
decisions are arrived at only through limited formal observations, i.e.,
from anecdotal or case-specific data. While generally correct in some
situations, in others, the policy choices fail to achieve their goals,
e.g., to reduce dependency, reverse deeply in-grained patterns of
institutional racism, prevent multi-generational poverty, prevent domestic
violence, or promote family stability, etc.
The reasons why particular social policies fail to achieve their
goals, or to achieve them only partially, are complex. Certainly, not all
of these reasons stem from the neglect of formal approaches to policy
modeling. Even so, many policy failures do result from the developer's own
incomplete understanding of the either the causes or dynamics of the
particular social concerns for which policies are formulated (e.g., the
wrong solution for the wrong problem). Policy failures also result from
an incomplete understanding of the nature and range of precise policy
interventions that are need to achieve a desired outcome (e.g., the wrong
solution for the right problem). In other situations, social policies are
the product of purely ideological considerations that are unrelated
to either real world events or to intervention strategies that might
reasonably be expected to bring about the intended result (e.g.,
reduce teen pr egnancy through "say no" campaigns; promote family stability
buy denying basic economic benefits to a families with an unemployed male
head of household).
MODELING IN SOCIAL WORK AND SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION
The social modeling process is an important element in the education of
social work students for practice in a national context; social modeling
education is an essential element in the education of students for
leadership roles in an international context.
In international social work education, skill in the construction of
formal and informal models of complex social systems serves four purposes:
1. social models can be used to describe the complex national and
international forces that shape social work practice in an
international context;
2. social models can help students better understand the complex
interplay of international social, political, and economic forces
that impact on human social behavior at all levels of social
organization;
3. social models can help students anticipate, in some cases even
predict, the likely outcomes associated with particular combinations
of different elements of social models across time, space, and cultures;
and,
4. social models can help students plan more effective strategies for
achieving targeted goals and objectives.
Social modeling, therefore, can contribute usefully to the education
of all social work students. Certainly, the systems in which students and
practitioners operate could benefit from the additional insights that are
possible through the use of more formal approaches to social modeling. For
students planning careers in international social work, the ability to
model complex social systems should be viewed as essential learning in
preparing them for the even more complex international systems in which
they will practice.
FACTORS INFLUENCING SOCIAL MODELING
AND INTERNATIONAL SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION
From conversations with colleagues spanning a period of 20 years, I long
ago reached the conclusion that there are as many models of international
education as there are teachers of international courses. I'm also
reasonably convinced that the processes that result in the adoption of
particular social models for the teaching international courses are
varied, complex, and multi-dimensional. But the origins of these
differences are understandable, and they can be described.
The richness that characterizes international social work education
springs from the diverse educational, experiential, and personal
backgrounds of social work educators. Central among these factors are:
1. the wide range of disciplinary backgrounds represented among social
work faculty members (e.g., history, economics, psychology, sociology,
education, political science, city and regional planning, management
sciences, etc.);
2. the intellectual traditions associated with particular social science
disciplines, including social work;
3. the strength of professional identification with either the
profession of social work, the field of social welfare, or the more
encompassing context of social development;
4. prior experience in working in the international community;
5. informed views concerning the underlying sources of national and
international social problems (e.g., wars, racism, global poverty,
rapid population increases, minority-majority conflicts, etc,); and,
6. perceptions concerning the approaches that are needed to solve major
national and international social problems (e.g., personal services to
"distressed" persons > community organization > "liberation" > revolution
> social transformation, etc.).
Orientation to social work practice also appears to influence the
choice of particular approaches to international education (i.e., "micro"
versus "mezzo" versus "macro" practice). I'm impressed, too, by the
contribution of research methodological preferences in explaining the
subtle variations that exist in seemingly similar courses, e.g., in
comparative human behavior courses in which "qualitative" versus
"quantitative" versus "mixed model" approaches to international education
are emphasized. And, of course, student ideological orientation and
learning style preferences influence the context, content, and structure
of international education in social work. Students with strong
orientations toward populist models of social change, for example, are
less likely to enroll in courses in which skill in comparative policy
analysis is emphasized.
All of these factors suggest the dynamic environment in which
international social work education occurs. The choices made with respect
to the content, focus, and intensity of international education are
influenced by a variety of factors, only some of which originate in the
"needs," "wants," and educational preferences of faculty and students.
Choices relating to education for international social work are also
influenced by other faculty members, by the larger university of which the
social work programs are a part, by the wider profession, and, of course,
by events occurring in the broader socio-political environment. Each of
these "constituencies" or sources of influence has a vested interest in
professional education, including international social work education and,
as such, the objectives of each must be addressed in courses and programs
that prepare students for careers in international practice.
MODELS OF INTERNATIONAL SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION
There are three basic models of international education in social work:
The "Social Welfare" Model
The "Social Development" Model
The "New World Order" Model
All three models are conceptually rich; each offers something
uniquely distinct and valuable in preparing students for leadership roles
in the international social work, social welfare, and social development.
The remainder of this chapter is devoted to a discussion of the
relative strengths and weakness of each model.
The Social Welfare Model
Readers are most likely to be familiar with the general features of the
"social welfare" model of international social work education.
The "social welfare" model has its origins in comparative social
policy, comparative social research, and cross-cultural approaches to
social work practice. The model draws knowledge from all major social
science disciplines and is oriented toward understanding variations in
human systems across time, space, and cultures. The "social welfare"
model embodies the profession's basic social provision values; the model
also embraces the institutional base of much of social work professional
activity.
1. Through carefully conducted policy analyses, the "social welfare"
model seeks to help students understand similarities and differences
in the social processes that inform welfare development across time
and in different societies. Often working at the cross-national level
of analysis, the primary skills emphasized by the model are: critical
thinking; knowledge of the history and philosophy of social welfare
programs and services of various countries; and skill in the use of
comparative research methodology.
A central goal of international comparative analysis is the
identification of principles, programmatic approaches, and strategies
of social welfare development that are suitable for
transfer between societies (Dixon, 1986; Evers and Wintersberger,
1988; Johnson, 1987; Kahn and Kamerman, 1975; Kamerman and Kahn, 1989;
MacPherson and Midgley, 1987; Mitchell, 1991; Rimlinger, 1971; Rose
and Shiratori, 1986; among many others).
2. Through exposure to persons of diverse cultural backgrounds, the
"social welfare" model seeks to help students better understand and
respond to the unique socio-cultural forces that shape human needs.
Education in the "cross-cultural" and "ethnic-sensitive" dimensions of
social work practice enable students to respond more effectively in
meeting the needs of individuals, groups, and whole communities whose
needs would otherwise go unmet by "mainstream" social welfare and
social service institutions. The goal of these approaches is to
ensure sensitivity on the part of larger systems to the special
compelling needs of "minority" populations served by these systems.
(Chau, 1989, 1991; Chu, 1990; Devore and Schlesinger, 1987; Keys,
1991; Maxwell, 1990).
Education for cross-cultural practice is essential to the
professional preparation of social workers for practice both in the
United States and other countries.
Both comparative policy analysis and cross-cultural/"ethnic-
sensitive" approaches to practice seek to impact positively on the
structure of existing social welfare arrangements, but especially those
institutional arrangements that comprise the formal social welfare
"network" (i.e., agencies, service organizations, and other human service
"actors").
The Social Development Model
The "social development" model has its origins in community organization
and community development practice. The model is multidisciplinary and
cross-sectoral in construction.
The primary purpose of the "social development" model is to provide a
framework for identifying and subsequently acting upon the underlying
causes of human degradation, powerlessness, and social inequality
everywhere in the world. The ultimate goal of the model is to guide
collective action toward the elimination of all forms of social
oppression, social and economic injustice, and national and international
forms of violence (Billups, 1990; Bolan, 1987; David, 1991; Estes, 1992;
Hollister, 1977; Khinduka, 1987;
Meinert and Kohn, 1987; Paiva, 1977).
Social development practitioners draw substantially for their theory
base from sociology (esp. stratification theory, the sociology of mass
movements, processes of regional development), political science (esp.
power domains, political influence, and structures of political parties),
economics (esp. theories of economic production, distribution, and
consumption), education (esp. theories of adult learning), philosophy (esp.
theories of justice and social ethics) and, in some cases, religion (e.g.,
the "liberation theology" of Gustavo Guiterrez, et al.). Development
specialists educated in social work also draw heavily from group work and
community organization practice for their skill base. The knowledge,
value, and skill base of traditional social work practice is totally
consistent with social development practice at both the national and
international levels.
The "targets" of social intervention in social development practice
include individuals, families, small groups, neighborhoods, communities,
provinces, nations, world subregions, and the world itself.
The "New World Order" Model
Many readers may be less familiar with the "new world order" model of
international education. The reasons for this are several: (1) the model
is more closely associated with the writings of "visionary" economists,
political scientists, legal scholars, and others; and (2) the model has
been associated with international efforts to conserve and protect the
planet's fragile eco-systems; and, (3) the concept of a "new world order"
has taken on something of a cliche as political leaders have used the
concept to suggest a vague range of international actions that were never
intended by the model.
Nevertheless, the "new world order" model is a viable model for
international education in social work. In essence, the model suggests
that the social, political, economic, and ecological problems confronting
humanity are rooted in fundamental inequalities that exist in the present
"world order," i.e., in the system of international institutional
arrangements that govern relationships between nations and, within nations,
between groups of people.
According to the model, the problematique humaine confronting people
all over the world is that the present world order is controlled by a
relatively small number of wealthy countries that manipulate the
international system to their own advantage. Less developed countries,
owing to their comparative marginal status in the world system, are
provided with only limited opportunities for accelerating social
development within their borders. Even those limited opportunities for
accelerated development that are made available, in the end, usually work
to the advantage of rich and powerful countries and, ultimately, to the
disadvantage of poor and powerless countries. Consequently, poorer
countries continue their steady descent into even deeper debt and
impoverishment; in time, the social and political structures of the most
fragile countries collapse under the weight of human misery (Estes, 1990,
1992; Falk, 1971, 1992; Falk et al., 1982; Henderson, 1991; Independent
[Brandt] Commission, 1991; Korten, 1990; Van Soest, 1992; WCED,
1987; Wein, 1984).
The "new world order" model is oriented toward fundamental
restructuring of the global social, political, economic, and ecological
order. The principles that inform this global restructuring give emphasis
to: maximum participation of people in their own development; the pursuit
of peace; the satisfaction of the basic needs of people everywhere; and
protection of the planet's fragile ecosystems. The "new world order"
model also advocates for: global sharing rather than squandering of scarce
resources; cooperation rather than competition in all spheres of
international activity; and conservation rather than exploitation of the
natural environment.
The "new world order" model is replete with idealistic expressions
but its advocates are far from being "fuzzy headed." Rather, their visions
of the future require the expression of goals and objectives in terms that
exceed language used by "pragmatists" who are commited to social change on
a more incremental basis.
Given the far-reaching nature of the social problems and issues of
concern to international social work, my own view is that the "new world
order" model offers a viable approach that other educators could serious
consider adopting for use in teaching elements of their own international
courses.
Contrasting Similarities and Differences of the Three Models
A more formal analysis of the similarities and differences of the three
models is summarized in Charts 1 through 8. These charts
compare the
models along the following dimensions: ideological orientation; dominant
values; their perception of the international implications of "domestic"
social issues; social change goals; the perceived sources of pressure for
social change; the perceived contribution of social work and social welfare
in promoting fundamental social change; the dominant intervention
strategies to be employed in bringing about significant change; and, the
primary "targets" of social intervention.
- Chart 1
- Origins of the Problematique
Humaine Associated With Three Models of Internationalizing Social Work
Education
- Chart 2
- Dominant Values Associated With
Three Models of Internationalizing Social Work Education
- Chart 3
- "Domestic" Implications of International Social Problems
Associated With Three Models of Internationalizing Social
Work Education
- Chart 4
- Social Change Goals Associated With
Three Models of Internationalizing Social Work Education
- Chart 5
- Pressures For Social Change
Associated With Three Models of Internationalizing Social Work Education
- Chart 6
- Perceived Contributions of Social
Work and Social Welfare in Promoting Fundamental Social Change
Associated With Three Models of Internationalizing Social Work Education
- Chart 7
- Dominant Intervention Modes Associated With Three Models of
Internationalizing Social Work Education
- Chart 8
- Primary Targets of Social
Intervention
Associated With Three Models of Internationalizing Social Work
Education
These comparisons, I think, suggest that all three models of
international education are appropriate for use in social work education.
Certainly, readers will want to consider which model or models respond most
directly to their particular orientation to the teaching of international
content.
The next chapter, Chapter 3, focuses on the questions of "how" and
"how much" international content should be included in social work courses
and, indeed, in the larger social work programs through which particular
international social work courses are offered.
RESOURCE MATERIALS ON
MODELS OF INTERNATIONAL SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION
READINGS IN THE "SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT" MODEL OF INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION
Billups, James O. 1990. "Toward Social Development as an Organizing
Concept For Social Work and Related Social Professions and Movements,"
Social Development Issues 12(3):14-26.
David, Gerson. 1991. "Participation in Social Development for the 1990s:
Yes, But How?" Social Development Issues 13(3):14-28.
Elliott, Doreen et al. (Editors). 1990. The World of Social Welfare:
Social Welfare and Social Services in International Context. (Springfield
IL: Charles C. Thomas).
Elliott, Doreen et al. International Handbook on Social Work Theory and
Practice (in preparation).
Estes, Richard J. 1989. "International Experiences of American Social Work
Educators," J of International and Comparative Social
Welfare (Spring).
Estes, Richard J. 1992. "Group Work in International Perspective: Group
Work, Social Development, and Social Change," Social Work With Groups (in
press).
Hollister, David C. 1977. "Social Work Skills and Social Development,"
Social Development Issues 1(1):9-20.
Jones, John and Rama Pandey (Editors). 1981. Social Development
Conceptual, Methodological, and Policy Issues. (New York: St. Martin's
Press).
Khinduka, Shanti K. 1987. "Development and Peace: The Complex Nexus,"
Social Development Issues 10(3):19-30.
Meinert, Roland, Ezra Kohn, and Gayle Strickler. 1984. "International
Survey of Social Development Concepts," Social Development Issues
8(1/2):70-88.
Meinert, Roland, and Ezra Kohn. 1987. "Toward Operationalization of Social
Development Concepts," Social Development Issues
10(3):4-18.
Midgley, James. 1990. "International Social Work: Learning From the Third
World," Social Work 35(4):295- 301.
Mohan, Brij. "International Social Work," Encyclopedia of Social Work
(Washington: NASW).
Nayak, R. K. and Siddiqui, H. Y. (Editors). 1989. Social Work and Social
Development. (New Delhi, India: Gitanjali Publishing
House).
Osei-Hwedie, Kwaku. 1990. "Social Work and the Question of Social
Development in Africa," Journal of Social Development in Africa 5(2):87-99.
Paiva, Francis X. 1977. "A Conception of Social Development," Social
Service Review (June):327-336.
Paiva, Francis X. 1982. "The Dynamics of Social Development and Social
Work," in Daniel Sanders (ed.) The Developmental Perspective in Social
Work (Honolulu: University of Hawaii School of Social Work), pp. 1-12.
Rosenthal, Beth Spencer. 1991. Social Workers' Interest in International
Practice in the Developing World: A Multivariate Analysis," Social Work
36(3):248-252.
Sanders, Daniel S. (Editor). 1982. The Developmental Perspective in Social
Work. (Honolulu: University of Hawaii School of Social
Work).
Sanders, Daniel S. and Jon K. Matsuoka. 1989. Peace and Development: An
Interdisciplinary Perspective. (Honolulu: University of Hawaii School of
Social Work).
Spergel, Irving. 1977. "Social Development and Social Work,"
Administration in Social Work 1(3):221-233.
Stein, Herman. 1976. "Social Work's Developmental Change Perspective:
Their Roots in Practice," Social Service Review 50(1).
READINGS IN THE "NEW WORLD ORDER" MODEL OF EDUCATION
Coates, Joseph F. and Jennifer Jarratt. 1989. What Futurists Believe.
(Besthesda MD: World Future Society).
de Chardin, Teilhard. 1969. The Future of Man. (New York: Harper).
Estes, Richard J. 1990. "Development Under Different Political and
Economic Systems," Social Development Issues 13(1):5-19.
Estes, Richard J. 1992. At the Crossroads: Dilemmas in Development Toward
the Year 2000 and Beyond. (New York: Praeger).
Falk, Richard A. 1971. This Endangered Planet: Prospects and Proposals for
Human Survival. (New York: Vintage).
Falk, Richard A. (Editor). 1992. Global Civilization. (New York: World
Order Models Project).
Falk, Richard, Samuel Kim and Saul Mendlovitz (Editors). 1982. Toward A
Just World Order. (Boulder: Westview Press).
Henderson, Hazel. 1991. Paradigms in Progress: Life Beyond Economics.
(Indianapolis: Knowledge Systems).
Independent (Brandt) Commission on International Development Issues. 1981.
North-South: A Program for Survival. (Cambridge:
MIT Press).
Korten, David C. 1990. Getting To the 21st Century: Voluntary Action and
the Global Agenda. (West Hartford CT: Kumarian Press).
Meadows, Dennis L. et al. 1974. Dynamics of Growth in a Finite World.
(Cambridge MA: Wright-Allen Press).
Mumford, Lewis. 1956. The Transformations of Man. (New York: Macmillian).
Thomas, Daniel C. and Michael T. Klare (Editors). 1989. Peace and World
Order Studies: A Curriculum Guide. (Boulder: Westview
Press).
Van Soest, Dorothy. 1992. Incorporating Peace and Social Justice Into the
Social Work Curriculum (Washington: National Association of Social Workers).
World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED). 1987. Our Common
Future. (New York: Oxford University Press).
Wien, Barbara (Editor). 1984. Peace and World Order Studies. 4th Edition.
(New York: World Policy Institute).
"WORLD ORDER" COMPUTER SIMULATIONS
Dukes, Richard L. Worlds Apart: Collective Action in Simulated Agrarian
and Industrial Societies (Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer Academic
Publishers).
Employs the most widely used simulation, STARPOWER, to examine the
process of collective action form its genesis in social structure to
its culmination in new and sometimes widely transformed social
systems...the system recreates the stratification systems of agrarian
and industrial societies.
Flynn, J.P. 1990. "Using the Computer to Teach and Learn Social Policy: A
Report for the Classroom and the Field," Computers in Human Services
7(3-4):199-209.
Gore, William. Grass Roots Politics. (Madison: University of Wisconsin,
WISC-WARE Package #178). This learning game takes place in a
neighborhood in a medium size city. It focuses on the need for
streetlighting and it deals with the politics of obtaining streelights
within the context of local government. The learner becomes a principal
actor in the process of interaction/negotiation through which
streetlights may be obtained. (Windows version available).
Contact: (800) 543-3201.
Oppenheimer, Joe and Mark Winer. Conflict and Cooperation. (Madison:
University of Wisconsin, WISC-WARE #192 & 193).
A social game construction kit. Allows the user to interactively
specify an infinite number os social game scenarios where: (1) the
basic choices each participant must make involve the allocation of
resources between two alternatives, and (2) the outcome of each
participant's choices depends on the choices of the other participants as
well as they own. (Windows version available).
Contact: (800) 543-3201.
Rae, Douglas, et al. Simulated Political Arena. (Madison: University of
Wisconsin, WISC-WARE #142).
An interactive simulation intended to enable students to gain an
understanding of fundamental political behavior.
Contact: (800) 543-3201.
Scott, Andrew M. 1987. Castellon. (New York: Harcourt Brace Javanovich,
Inc).
On becoming the President of Castellon, a user must try to deal with
a broad range of socioeconomic problems confronting the country and
the political consequences that they generate. The program will allow
the user to interact with a broad set of policy alternatives. The
results of decisions are depicted graphically, over time, and across
sectors of development.
Seitz, Steven T. Superpower Rivalries--Historical Case Studies. (Madison:
University of Wisconsin, WISC-WARE #168).
Allows the user to systematically examine major theories of
superpower rivalries. Encourages students to examine six different
theories of international political relations: National Life Cycle,
Balance of Power, Bolshevism versus Liberalism, Geopolitics,
Historical Materialism, and Psychopolitics. (Windows version available).
Contact: (800) 543-3201.
Siesinger, Doris et al. Population Pyramids. (Madison: University of
Wisconsin, WISC-WARE Package #50).
Helps students to build and interpret population pyramids.
Contact: (800) 543-3201).
ANNUAL MONITORING REPORTS
Brown, Lester. 1992. State of the World, 1992. (New York: Norton).
United Nations Childrens Fund (UNICEF). 1992. The State of the World's
Children, 1992. (New York: Oxford University Press
for UNICEF).
United Nations Development Program (UNDP). 1992. Human Development Report,
1992. (New York: UNDP).
U.S.Department of Health and Human Services. 1991. Social Security
Throughout the World, 1991. (Washington: Social Security Administration,
Office of Policy Research)--published bi-annually.
World Bank. 1992. World Development Report, 1992. (Washington: World Bank).
The World Game. 1992. Global Data Manager. (Philadelphia: The World Game
Institute).
World Resource Institute. 1992. World Resources, 1992. (Washington: WRI).
------------------------
1) This discussion of the general nature of social models in based on
that described by Meadows et al. (1974), pp. 3-8.
2) My own understanding of the origins of these differences has been
enriched by the development of the Council on Social Work Education's Data
Base of "Social Work Educators With International Interests." In my role
as manager of that data base I have been able to examine the descriptions,
syllabi, and other materials pertaining to some 50+ international social
work courses. Some of the findings of this examination were earlier
reported in (Estes, 1989). For a study of different type that also
explore attitudes toward international work see (Rosenthal, 1991).
3) See the bibliographies at the end of Chapter 5 (Comparative Social
Policy) and Chapter 6 (Comparative Social Welfare Research) for complete
citations of the published works of authors whose writings are associated
with the "social welfare model."
4) A phrase used by the Club of Rome to describe the profound and
menacing "...cluster of worldwide problems--not only material in
nature--(that are) growing at an incredible speed when viewed in
historical perspective" (Mesarovic and Pestel, 1974. Mankind at the Turning
Point, p. xii).
5) See Coates and Jarratt (1989) for an especially rich discussion of
the alternative "visions" of 17 prominent "futurists," some of whom are
associated with the "new world order" model of worldwide social change.
--------------
Excerpted from Richard J. EStes (1992) _Internationalizing Social Work
Education: A Guide to Resources For a New Century_ (Philadelphia:
University of Pennsylvania School of Social Work).
Permission is granted to disseminate this document so long as proper
credit has been given to the source.